Google Classroom
By Dr. Renee M. Gondek
Khan Academy video wrapper
See video transcript
A shared language, religion, and culture
Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of
and
, to the treatises of
, from the exacting measurements of the Parthenon (above) to the rhythmic chaos of the Laocoön (below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Thanks largely to notable archaeological sites, well-known literary sources, and the impact of Hollywood (Clash of the Titans, for example), this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness—prompting visions of epic battles, erudite philosophers, gleaming white temples, and limbless nudes (we now know the sculptures—even the ones that decorated temples like the Parthenon—were brightly painted, and, of course, the fact that the figures are often missing limbs is the result of the ravages of time).
Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and his Sons, early first century C.E., marble, 7'10 1/2" high (Vatican Museums; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Dispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called poleis or
, the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture. Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called “Panhellenic” sanctuaries and festivals that embraced “all Greeks” and encouraged interaction, competition, and exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek civilization was vast and did not develop overnight.
The Dark Ages (c. 1100–c. 800 B.C.E.) to the Orientalizing Period (c. 700–600 B.C.E.)
Following the collapse of the Mycenaean citadels of the late Bronze Age, the Greek mainland was traditionally thought to enter a “Dark Age” that lasted from c. 1100 until c. 800 B.C.E. Not only did the complex socio-cultural system of the Mycenaeans disappear, but also its numerous achievements (i.e., metalworking, large-scale construction, writing). The discovery and continuous excavation of a site known as Lefkandi, however, drastically alters this impression. Located just north of Athens, Lefkandi has yielded an immense
structure (almost fifty meters long), a massive network of graves, and two heroic burials replete with gold objects and valuable horse sacrifices. One of the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine (see photos below). At fourteen inches high, the terracotta creature is composed of a equine (horse) torso made on a potter’s wheel and hand-formed human limbs and features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the cultural richness of this period.
Centaur, c. 900 B.C.E. (Proto-Geometric period), terracotta, 14 inches high, the head was found in tomb 1 and the body was found in tomb 3 in the cemetery of Toumba, Lefkandi, Greece (detail of head photo: Dan Diffendale CC BY-NC-SA 2)
Similar in its adoption of narrative elements is a vase-painting likely from Thebes dating to c. 730 B.C.E. (see image below). Fully ensconced in the Geometric Period (c. 800–700 B.C.E.), the imagery on the vase reflects other eighth-century artifacts, such as the Dipylon Amphora, with its geometric patterning and silhouetted human forms. Though simplistic, the overall scene on this vase seems to record a story. A man and woman stand beside a ship outfitted with tiers of rowers. Grasping at the stern and lifting one leg into the hull, the man turns back towards the female and takes her by the wrist. Is the couple
? Is this an abduction? Perhaps
? Or, is the man bidding farewell to the woman and embarking on a journey as had
? The answer is unattainable.
Late Geometric Attic spouted krater (vessel for mixing water and wine), possibly from Thebes, c. 730 B.C.E., 30.5 cm high (The British Museum, London), photo: Egisto Sani CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
In the Orientalizing Period (700–600 B.C.E.), alongside Near Eastern motifs and animal processions, craftsmen produced more nuanced figural forms and intelligible illustrations. For example, terracotta painted plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon (c. 625 B.C.E.) are some of the earliest evidence for architectural decoration in Iron Age Greece. Once ornamenting the surface of this Doric temple (most likely as metopes), the extant panels have preserved various imagery (watch this video to learn about the Doric order). On one plaque (see image below), a male youth strides towards the right and carries a significant attribute under his right arm—the severed head of the
Medusa (her face is visible between the right hand and right hip of the striding figure, in Greek mythology a Gorgon is a monstrous feminine creature whose appearance would turn anyone who laid eyes upon it to stone).. Not only is the painter successful here in relaying a particular story, but also the figure of Perseus shows great advancement from the previous century. The limbs are fleshy, the facial features are recognizable, and the hat and winged boots appropriately equip the hero for fast travel.
Fragment showing Perseus with the head of Medusa likely from a metope from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon, c. 630 B.C.E., painted terracotta, 87.8 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo: ArchaiOptix, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The Archaic Period (c. 600–480/479 B.C.E.)
While Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures throughout the Archaic Period, the city of Athens witnessed the rise and fall of tyrants and the introduction of democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E.
Visually, the period is known for large-scale marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures (see below). Showing the influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture (like this example of the Pharaoh Menkaure and his wife in the MFA, Boston), the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently employed as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed unabashed nudity, highlighting their complicated hairstyles and abstracted musculature (below left). The kore, on the other hand, was never nude. Not only was her form draped in layers of fabric, but she was also ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. Though some have been discovered in funerary contexts, like Phrasiklea (below right), a vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens (more on the Acropolis korai). Ritualistically buried following desecration of this sanctuary by the Persians in 480 and 479 B.C.E., dozens of korai were unearthed alongside other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities of these figures have been hotly debated in recent times, most agree that they were originally intended as votive offerings to the goddess Athena.
Left: Anavysos (Kroisos) Kouros, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, 6′ 4″ (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo: Steven Zucker Right: Aristion of Paros, Phrasikleia Kore, c. 550 – 540 B.C.E. Parian marble with traces of pigment, 211 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo: Asaf Braverman CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
The Classical Period (480/479–323 B.C.E.)
Though experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, it was not until the Classical Period that two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The “Early Classical Period” (480/479–450 B.C.E.) was a period of transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers alongside the so-called “Severe Style.” As can be seen in the Kritios Boy, c. 480 B.C.E., the “Severe Style” features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids. For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the Niobid Painter’s vase in the Louvre (image below).
Niobid Painter, Niobid Krater, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460-50 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Musée du Louvre, Paris)
During the “High Classical Period” (450–400 B.C.E.), there was great artistic success: from the innovative structures on the Acropolis to Polykleitos’ visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the Doryphoros or “Canon” (image below). Concurrently, however, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 B.C.E. Despite continued military activity throughout the “Late Classical Period” (400–323 B.C.E.), artistic production and development continued apace. In addition to a new figural aesthetic in the fourth century known for its longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads (for example, the Apoxyomenos), the first female nude was produced. Known as the Aphrodite of Knidos, c. 350 B.C.E., the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-Curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a pudica (or modest Venus) pose (see a Roman copy in the Capitoline Museum in Rome here). Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, the Aphrodite of Knidos became one of the most celebrated sculptures in all of antiquity.
Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) or The Canon, c. 450–40 B.C.E., ancient Roman marble copy found in Pompeii of the lost bronze original, 211 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
The Hellenistic Period and Beyond (323 B.C.E.–31 B.C.E.)
Following the death of
in 323 B.C.E., the Greeks and their influence stretched as far east as modern India. While some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style of the previous period such as Eutychides’ Tyche of Antioche (Louvre), other artists were more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon (below) expressions of agony and a confused mass of limbs convey a newfound interest in drama.
Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), The Pergamon Altar, c. 200-150 B.C.E. (Hellenistic Period), 35.64 x 33.4 meters, marble (Pergamon Museum, Berlin)
Architecturally, the scale of structures vastly increased, as can be seen with the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, and some complexes even terraced their surrounding landscape in order to create spectacular vistas as can be seem at the Sanctuary of Asklepios on Kos. Upon the defeat of Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E., the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt and, simultaneously, the Hellenistic Period came to a close. With the Roman admiration of and predilection for Greek art and culture, however, Classical aesthetics and teachings continued to endure from antiquity to the modern era.
Additional resources
Richard T. Neer, Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500–c. 150 B.C.E. (Thames and Hudson, 2011)
Robin Osborne, Archaic and Classical Greek Art (Oxford University Press, 1988)
John G. Pedley, Greek Art and Archaeology (Pearson, 2011)
J.J. Pollitt, Art and Experience in Classical Greece (Cambridge University Press, 1972)
Nigel Jonathan Spivey, Greek Art (Phaeton Press, 1997)
Essay by Dr. Renee M. Gondek
Log in Tashawn Katrice Sanders 7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to Tashawn Katrice Sanders's post “What philosophy and attit...” What philosophy and attitudes of the ancient Greeks corresponds with the development of the naturalistic "ideal" as the norm for the human figures? • (2 votes) ThatHamGurl 6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to ThatHamGurl's post “Not for sure certain, but...” Not for sure certain, but their Greek gods were not supposed to be perfect, rigid figures. They were supposed to seem more natural, more open to the people. Athena was strategizing and brainy. Ares was aggressive and lustful. Hestia was warm and welcoming. All these were personalities that appear in humans themselves. So the Greeks most likely wanted their art to be as natural and open as possible to reflect that, hence the naturalistic ideal. That would also point to the very idea of their Olympics being contests reflecting these godlike but human skills. At least, that's what I think. :) (8 votes) Mike K 5 years agoPosted 5 years ago. Direct link to Mike K's post “What is the significance ...” What is the significance of this format to a range of dates? “Early Classical Period” (480/479 – 450 B.C.E.)” It seems like it must mean something different than just 480 – 450 B.C.E. • (2 votes) drszucker 5 years agoPosted 5 years ago. Direct link to drszucker's post “Good question. This refle...” From the author:Good question. This reflects differences between scholars. We have two audiences at Smarthistory, our students, and their teachers. That split date is meant to satisfy a contingent of the latter. (4 votes) imogen kone 7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to imogen kone's post “was the terra cotta centa...” was the terra cotta centaur statue from the tomb meant to guard the spirit of the deceased? • (3 votes) sydneykollm98 4 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to sydneykollm98's post “What is acropolis from an...” What is acropolis from and what period is it from? • (2 votes) drszucker 4 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to drszucker's post “An acropolis is a hill. M...” From the author:An acropolis is a hill. Many ancient Greek city states had them though the one in Athens is the most well known. They were often fortifications that became sacred precincts over time. (1 vote) 22macarthurr 3 years agoPosted 3 years ago. Direct link to 22macarthurr's post “can you more on Greek ast...” can you more on Greek astronomy and what they did to look up into space. and could you also give me more info on greek artwork and also could you do a whole lesson on the greek gods and goddess • (1 vote) drszucker 3 years agoPosted 3 years ago. Direct link to drszucker's post “We have been wanted to do...” From the author:We have been wanted to do something on great gods and goddesses, thank you for asking. (2 votes) CeNedra 4 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to CeNedra's post “Who where the gods they w...” Who where the gods they worshiped? • (0 votes) mattheoriddle 4 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to mattheoriddle's post “they worshipped the Olymp...” they worshipped the Olympians (2 votes) icebear5h 7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to icebear5h's post “what is the most they con...” what is the most they contributed to us • (0 votes) Phil_hippos 7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to Phil_hippos's post “Thinking as a Ancient Gre...” Thinking as a Ancient Greek, I imagine that there was some sort of esoterical thing going on in those temples. What is the esoterical sense of the column orders? (0 votes)Want to join the conversation?
They were (the Olympians) ~ Zeus,Hera,Poseidon,Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite,Hephastas,Dionysius, Hestia, Demeter andAthena
